CHAPTER II
THE ELEMENT OF PROSE FICTION
Fiction is any form of narrative which deals, in
part or in whole, with events that are not factual, but rather, imaginary and
invented by its author. Although fiction often describes a major branch of
literary work, it is also applied to theatrical, cinematic, and musical work.
In contrast to this is non-fiction, which deals
exclusively in factual events
(e.g.: biographies, histories)
Prose is the most typical form of written
language, applying ordinary grammatical structure and natural flow of speech
rather than rhythmic structure (as in traditional poetry). The English word
"prose" is derived from the Latin prōsa, which literally translates
as "straight-forward." While there are critical debates on the
construction of prose, its simplicity and loosely defined structure has led to
its adoption for the majority of spoken dialogue, factual discourse as well as
topical and fictional writing. It is commonly used, for example, in literature,
newspapers, magazines, encyclopedias, broadcasting, film, history, philosophy,
law and many other forms of communication.
Prose is the ordinary form of spoken and written
language whose unit is the sentence, rather than the line as it is in poetry.
The term applies to all expressions in language that do not have a regular
rhythmic pattern. The term is from the Latin prose, meaning "in
phrase" which was derived from prose oratio, meaning "straight,
direct, unadorned speech," which itself was derived from prose, meaning
"straightforward or direct" and can be further traced to pro versum,
meaning "turned forward.
Prose is considered one of the two major
literary structures, with the other being verse. Prose lacks the more formal
metrical structure of verse that is almost always found in traditional poetry.
Poems often involve a meter and/or rhyme scheme. Prose, instead, comprises
full, grammatical sentences, which then constitute paragraphs and overlook
aesthetic appeal. Some works of prose do contain traces of metrical structure
or versification and a conscious blend of the two literature formats is known
as prose poetry. Similarly, any work of verse with fewer rules and restrictions
is known as free verse. Verse is considered to be more systematic or formulaic,
whereas prose is the most reflective of ordinary (often conversational) speech.
Prose is more or less the opposite of poetry. Basically, any written work that
is not poetry is, by definition. Prose should include, as should most writing,
complete sentences, correct punctuation and correct grammar, to name a few.
However for artistic sake, recreational writing my bend the rulers here and
there. A particular author’s style may include sentence fragments, run-on
sentences, and poor grammar.
There are elements of
prosefiction.
1.
Theme
Theme
hunting is a favorite activity of crities and teachers of fiction. And since
this is so it’s a common activity of students as well. Indeed the experience of
reading the essays of academic critics and the papers of cager students might
lead one to believe that writing a story is simply a way of finding a clever
dis guise for abstract idea . And why should a writer so disguise his ideas?
Apparently to give critics and students something to do.
Theme
in fiction is what the author is able to make of the total experience rendered.
And although there will be something generalin the theme of a work of fiction,
theme is the ultimate unifying element in fiction. Its responser to the
pressure of theme that the author shapes plot and brings character into being
and it is theme whether consciously stated or not that provides the writer
withhis most important principle of selection
Theme is the main idea that weaves the story together, the why, the
underlying ideas of what happens in the piece of literature, often a statement
about society or human nature. Explicit
theme is when the writer states the theme openly and clearly.
Theme tends to be an
overused term in English classes. It implies that each story has a secret
message that can be decoded, if only we can read the clues or possess the
secret key. It's a holdover from the expectation that stories must have a moral
lesson to teach.
2.
Setting
Refers to the place and time. Setting is the locale and time of a story. The setting
is often a real place, but may be a fictitious city or country within our own
world; a different planet; or an alternate universe, which may or may not have
similarities with our own universe. Sometimes setting is referred to as milieu, to
include a context (such as society) beyond the immediate surroundings of the
story.
Setting,
the location and time of a story, is often listed as one of the fundamental
elements of fiction. Sometimes setting is referred to as milieu, to include a
context (such as society) beyond the immediate surroundings of the story. In
some cases, setting becomes a character itself and can set the tone of a story
Where and when the action of the story occurs.
In certain stories, the environment can play a significant role. Sometimes the
environment is so important it can act as a character in the story or play a
role in the story's conflict. Knowing where and when the story is happening
will help you to produce stronger, more defensible interpretations. One reason
we read for pleasure is for literature's capacity to take us somewhere else.
Types
of settings.
a. Neutral
settings. Often the setting in a work of foiction is little more than a
reflection of the truth that things have to happen somewhere.
b. The
spiritual settings. The expectations aroused in us by a rural settings suggest
that few settings are absoletely neutral because few settings are merely
physical.
The
element of setting.
a. The
actual geograpical location, including pothography, scenery, even the details
of a rooms interior
b. The
occupation and modes of day-to-day existence of the characters
c. The
time in which the action takes places eg. Historical period, season, season of
the year
d. The
religious, moral, intellectual, social, emotional environment of the
characters.
Function
of setting.
a. Setting
as metaphor. We have thus far been limiting our discussion to the literal
presentation of setting. Even what we have called ”spiritual setting” does not
essentially involve a departure from the literal, since it extends only to the
observable, ingtangible, effect that time and place may have on character and
events. Now we shall discuss a use setting that involves extra literal
elements.
b. Atmosphere.
A further function of setting, related to but not identical with its
metaphorical function, is the creation of atmosphere. Atmosphere has been more
talked about than defined and because it refers to the suggested rather than
the stated it may be impossible to define satisfactorily.
a. Setting
as the dominant element. Like character setting may be the element of primary
importance in a particular story or even in the work of a particular author.
Time as
the dominant element . I many works of fiction the time in which the action
occurs is of the highest importance.
b. Place
as the dominant element. Work of fiction in which the spatial setting or place
dominates are generally classified as examples of local color or regionalism.
The regionalist seeks to investigate the effects on character of a particular
geographical setting which means of course a spiritual as well as physical
setting.
3. Plot
plot is what happens in a story the story’s
organized development, usually a chain linking cause and effect. Plot is the
first and most obvious quality of a story. Plot first requires conflict, which
may arise between characters. plot is
the order in which things move and happen in a story.
Plot,
or storyline, is often listed as one of the fundamental elements of fiction. It
is the rendering and ordering of the events and actions of a story. On a micro
level, plot consists of action and reaction, also referred to as stimulus and
response. On a macro level, plot has a beginning, a middle, and an ending. Plot
is often depicted as an arc with a zig-zag line to represent the rise and fall
of action. Plot also has a mid-level structure: scene and sequel. A scene is a
unit of drama—where the action occurs. Then, after a transition of some sort,
comes the sequel—an emotional reaction and regrouping, an aftermath exposition
Plot
is ticker of the story, the series of events. It is simply what happens and
when it happens. It must be added that plot also establish a causal chain of
events. Without motivation and cause/effect, a series of events is just that a
series. It isn't a story. Infusing intentionality, motivation, actions and
reactions suddenly brings your plot to life. Plot forms the core of narrative
art. Keep in mind that plot doesn't have to be told in chronological order
Plot
make us aware of events not merely as elements in a temporal series but also as
an intricate pattern of cause and effect. Plot in fiction, we mean not simply
the events recounted in the story but the author’s arrangement of those events
according to their causal relationships.
The
structure of plot. we may
seem to be belaboring the obivious if we not that one discernible pattern is
the divisiopn of the story into beginning, middle, and end.
a.
The beginning may be what comes first in time.
The beginning of a story then, in addition to the necessary exposition give us
the picture of a situation in which there exist sources of instability, which
may at the outset be latent or overt.
The
story is, then placed explicitly in a historical setting, which is presented to
us in general terms before the introduction of any specific action or
characters.
b.
The middle conflict, complication, climax. We
move from the end of the beginning to the beginning of the middle as the
elements sending towards instability in the initial situation group themselves
into what we recognize as a pattern of conflict.
Complication and climax as a development towards
conflict is latent in the initial situation so is a development toward climax
latent in the initial statement of conflict to the climax is often revered to
us complication. The climax is reached when the complication attains it’s highest
point of intensity from which point the outcome of the story is inevitable.
Climax The peak and turning point of the
conflict, the point at which we know the outcome of the action. Children call
it the most exciting part.
The important of complication in
fiction cannot be overestimated. Without adequate complication. The conflict
would remain inert, its possibilities never realized
c.
The end is consist of everything from the climax
to the denouentent, or outcome of the story
The
laws of plot
a. Plausibility
is certainly the law of plausibility. To say that story has plausibility is
simply to say that it i on vinicing on its own terms. A story is plausible when
it is true to itself.
b. Surprise
a story that never surprises us is likely to prove rather dull reading.
c. Suspense.
By suspense we mean an expectant uncertainty as to the outcome of the story,
true suspense is more than a matter of not knowing how things will tarn out.
The
suspense of which we speak involves some awareness of the posibilities and
ideally some concern about them. A device to suspense is foreshadowing mean
introducing detail wich hint at the dirrection the story is going to take.
Plot
and unity is plot should be clear by now that a plot that its the description
suggested in the present chapter must inevitably have unity. Any plot that has a true beginning, middle,
and end and the follows the jaws of
plausibility, surprise, and suspense most have unity, for that is all we mean
by unity.
Subplots
is a special problem relating to unity arises in some longer work in fiction.
The problem of the subplots is a squence of events distinct, at least in part
from the main plot. first the subplots may be closely related to the main plot.
a second possibility is that the work principle of unity is to be found in some
element other than plot-fof instance in the theme.
Plot
as unity plot may be the single most important device making for unity in a
particular story. Plot as expression. Plot is of the higest importance in
expressing the meaning of a work of fiction and it is buslness of plot to
clarify causal relationships.
4. Character and characterization
A character is an imagined person in a story, whom we
know from the words. We read on the page. Plot shows character, character
causes plot. In most stories you can not speak of the one without evoking the
other. Characterization is exposition of character. We may prefer to reveal the
person in directly by showing action (characterization by action or anecdote).
Another writer shows characterization by a series of anecdotes, a telling, in a
summary which is common in fiction.
Character is the mental, emotional, and social qualities to distinguish
one entity from another (people, animals, spirits, automatons, pieces of
furniture, and other animated objects). Character
development is the change that a character undergoes from the
beginning of a story to the end. Young children can note this. The importance of a character to the
story determines how fully the character is developed. Characters can be primary,
secondary, minor, or main.
The
standard of c. The nation of lifelikeness is an oversimplification. That is the
search for lifelikeness may lead the reader to overlook much that is essential
is. Literary characterization.
We
should be aware, then not only of the similarities but also of the differences
between fictional characters and real human beings.
a.
Character and freedom. Fictional character is
never entirely free. The fictional character is part of an artistic whole and
must always serve the needs of that whole.
The
necesity of being fitted into a statisfying artistic whole is the most
important. Difference between the fictional character and the human being and
is the basis of all the other differences.
b.
Character and choice. The necessity of placing
character in a unified work of art forces the author into a series of choices.
The
standard of relevance. Character must be considered as part of the story’s internalstructure.
The standard of the lifelekness is the standard of the relevance.
Universal
and particular. The advantage of the of the relevance is that it allows the
author a full measure of freedom in the creation of character without denying
the point of contact between the character and the reader. The standard of
lifelikeness would be of little help in judging
Forms
of relevance. A character is obviously relevant to us and to our experience if
he is like ourselves or like others whom we know. A character is relevant if
there are a lot people like him in the real world. And it may be that this fofm
of relevance, rather than lifelikeness, is the secret of the power the great
character.
Judging
fictional characters. We have to know about the kinds of characters that appear
in fiction. With regard to the kinds of characters portrayed. Fictional
characterinto two general catagories. Our names these catagories will be simple
simple character and complex character.
a.
Simple (flat) characters the simple or flat,
character is less the representation of a human personality than the embodiment
of a single attitude or obsession in a character. Forster calls this kinds of
character flat because we see only one side of him. Flat characters
are less well developed and have fewer or
limited traits or belong to a group, class, or stereotype. A Flat
character is two- representation of a person dimensionala on,light,character
worse).
b.
Complex (round) characters. At the other end of
the spectum is the comp;ex character, called round by forster because we see
all sides of him. The complex character is obviously more lifelike than the
simple, because in life people are not simply embodiments of single attitude.
It would be pointless to list examples of complex characters from fiction. Round
characters are those the
reader/listener/viewer gets to know well. They have a variety of traits that
make them believable. Central characters are well developed in good literature
or protagonist (hero or heroine). A Round character is 3D person
(we see more of their interior and exterior being), a fuller representation of
the whole person.
Function
of complex character. Should a writer choose complexity or simplicity in the
portayal of character?. It is often suggested (by forster, among others) that
the complex or round, character is a higher kind of achievement than the
simple. At we shall see, this view must be seriously qualified .But let’s begin
by examining the functions that can best be served by the complex character.
a. Complexity
and relevance. Complex characters are more lifelike than simple characters and,
as we have seen lifelikeness is one form of relevance.
b. Complexity
and craftsmanship. As an achievement in literatury crafstmanship the complex character is in many
ways more more dificult than the simple. The simple character need only repeat
his basic formula each time he appears on the scene. The complexity we want is
the complexity of a unified character. The combination of complexity and unity,
the sense of unity in complexity, that is impressive.
c. Consistency.
There are several possible answer to this objection. It is not certain that
human beings do really act inconsistenly. Seen in the right perspective in the
eye of god or the psychoanalist for example we may all behave more consistently
than we know.
Function
of simple characters. Consistency should be no problem with simple characters,
for the simple character is by definition consistent. What many readers object
to in simple characters is that they are consistent at the price of complexity,
and their lack of complexity violates our sense of the human personality. There
is some truth in this charge, but we must recognize that the simple character
can perform many important function in the work of fiction.
a. Simplicity
and lifelikeness. We have said that because human beings are more lifelike than
simple characters. The use simple characters to fullfill minor roles in a work
of fiction statisfic my sense of life, nor perhaps as it really (the eye god
again). The simple character then can serve very well as minor character in
fiction. Contributing as we have seen to our sense of the overall lifelikeness
of the story.
b. Simplicity
and imagination. The simple character is not limited in fiction to use a minor
character part of the background against which the main action is played out.
Simple character is the more likely to appear in a major role as the writer
drifts away from realism.
Finally
that kind of simple character we call the stereotype may appear in a minor role
im serious fiction but will play a major
part as a general rule only in interior fiction.
Evaluation
of character types. It is then an over simplification to assert without
qualification that the complex character is a greater achievement than the
simple. If we think of character in itself, divorced from the other elements of
fiction, we may place a high value on complexity. But if we examine character
in the light of the story as a whole, we must see that complexity is not
necessarily a greater virtue than simplicity. We must always ask what the
character contributes to the story, And the author must always choose the kind
of character appropriate to his overall purpose.
5. Point of view
The
author who chooses to exploit his godlike knowledge of the universe he has created
will employ the omniscient narator. within the framework of the work of
fiction. the omniscient narator knows, simply, everything. he can at will enter
the mind of any character and tell the reader directly what the character is thinking. he can at one moment be in the
city, at the next in the country. in one paragraph he can be with us in the
present in the next he can take us into
the past.
The
alternative to the omniscient narator is the limited narator. as has been implied, limited narration is
always artificial, since there are in truth no limits to an author's knoledge
of his own creation
The
limited narator is simply, a narator who doesn't know everything. he may appear
both in stories old from the inside (first person naration) and in stories told
from the outside (third person narator) it is when we turn of the limited
narator.
Point of view is
from whose consciousness the reader hears, sees, and feels the story. A story`s point of view is our window on
it`s fictional world and gives us our single vision. Often we watch trough the
view point of one character, but not always. In fiction the windows angle makes
all the difference.
Story tellers use three principal points
of view. The first uses who is an observer or peripheral character. She second
uses who is central to the story either as protagonist or participant. The
third (and most common) used the third person he, she or they and the story teller
conveys only that one persons thoughts and feelings. we call this point of view
limited omniscience-omniscient because it can read minds, limited because it
can not read all minds.
Another point of view unlimited
omniscience. More common is the objective point of view which narrates action
but does not report on anyone` ideas or feelings. Point of view often
contributes to a short story`s irony. Irony is the perception of incongruity or
discrepancy- between words and meanings, between actions and reality, between
narrator who is dishonest or stupid, who gives the reader an interpretation of
the action which the writer expects the reader to distrust.
6. Conflict
Conflicts occur when the protagonist struggles
against an antagonist (villain that goes against the protagonist), or opposing
force. Conflict and order make plot. The author creates the conflict by
describing one of the following types of interactions.
Types of conflict: There are five basic types of conflict.
In modern times, Person vs. Machine, also known
a.
Person vs. Him or Herself is the theme in
literature that places a character against his or her own will, confusion, or
fears. Person vs. Him or Herself can also be where a character tries to find
out who he or she is or comes to a realization or a change in character.
Although the struggle is internal, the character can be influenced by external
forces. The struggle of the human being to come to a decision is the basis of
Person vs. Him or Herself. Examples include the titular character of Beowulf. More
recently, the Academy Award winning movie A Beautiful Mind has been posited as
an application of Person vs. Him or Herself.
b.
Person vs. Person is a theme in literature in
which the main character's conflict with another person is the focus of the
story. An example is the hero's conflicts with the central villain of a work,
which may play a large role in the plot and contribute to the development of
both characters. There are usually several confrontations before the climax is
reached. The conflict is external. An example is the conflict between Judah and
Messala in Ben-Hur,as would be the conflict between a bully and his victim.
c.
Person vs. Society Person vs. Society is a theme
in fiction in which a main character's, or group of main characters', main source
of conflict is social traditions or concepts. In this sense, the two parties
are: a) the protagonist(s); b) the society of which the protagonist(s) are
included. Society itself is often looked at as a single character, just as an
opposing party would be looked at in a Person vs. Person conflict.This can also
be one protagonist against a group or society of antagonists or society led by
some antagonistic force. An example in literature would be Wuthering Heights
by Emily Brontë.
d.
Person vs. Nature Person vs. Nature is the theme
in literature that places a character against forces of nature. Many disaster
films focus on this theme, which is predominant within many survival stories.
It is also strong in stories about struggling for survival in remote locales,
such as Gary Paulson's Hatchet or Jack London's short story "To Build a
Fire".
e.
Person vs. Supernatural Person vs. Supernatural
is a theme in literature that places a character against supernatural forces.
When an entity is in conflict with him-, her-, or itself, the conflict is
categorized as internal, otherwise, it is external. Such stories are often seen
in Freudian Criticism as representations of id vs. superego. Bram Stoker's
Dracula is a good example of this, as well as Frankenstein by Mary Shelley and
"Christabel" by Samuel Coleridge. It is also very common in comic
books.
7. Style
and tone
Style
Relation
of style to tone. As we shall see in the course of this chapter, the role of style in a work of
ofiction is an important and complex one. But none of the effect we may
attribute to style is more important than its contribution to the establishment
of tone. In this relationship we may regard style as the means, tone as the end
. We shall first examine the nature of the means.
Meaning
of style. We must first be aware that the term “style” has a number of meanings. When we speak of the
“attie style” for instance, we are speaking of a literary tendency that has
flurshed especially in some periods . On the hand, there are “periods tyles”
character of one historical period and not to be found to any significant
extent in any other.
The
element of style : diction, imagery and
syntax.
By
diction is meant simply the author’s choice of word. Our purpose in the
analysis of diction is nto recognize the choices the author has made and to
infer when possible the reasons for which the
have been made. The analysis of diction always leads to some
considerations of the denotations and connotations
of the words chosen by the author.
Imagery
are made of words and a single word can be an image. Furthermore, the terms
image and imagery themselves, like most widely used critical term..
a. Literal
images or figurative involves no
necessary change or entension in the meaning of the words.It contributes
to the vivid representation of experience that we expert from the best fiction
b. Recurrent
images consist of a number of repetitions of the same image or the frequent
occurrence of images that, while not identical.
c. Figurative
images : Figurative images are some times called tropes or more commonly
figures of speech
Syntax:
In analyzing a writers syntax, we concern ourselves with such matters as the
characteristic length of his sentences.
The pro[ortion of simple of complex sentences and so on. These matters are by no means so
tryfal as they may at first appear.
Tone
Defining
tone perhaps the meaning of this term will become cleare if we think first of a
more familiar sense of tone that is the sense in which we speak of tone of
voice.
Irony
closely related to understatement but more clearly focused is the tone critics
usually refers to as irony. Irony in fiction consist of a discrepancy between
what is stated and what is suggested.
Hyperbole:
the opposite of understatement is hyperbole or exaggeration used for rhetorical
effect. The effect of hyperbole in this particular instance and in fiction is
dramatic heightening. the effect
of hyperbole in this particular instance in and many others in fiction is a
dramatic heighteni
Reference
Kenny,
William. 1996. How to Analize Fiction. Monarch Press
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiction_writing
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